When a person thinks “critically” it means they think in a critical manner – they pay attention to every flaw of a certain object. And when we talk about “analysis” it is when we investigate further than the obvious proof, we dig for more information and study more. These two words are very important for understanding of what a critical analysis essay is. With these two, we can say that when we make a critical analysis essay we must think of things carefully and make sure we’ve researched enough, because there is more than meets the eye, there is more to know.

Critical analysis essays are often used in college. It helps to improve how observant students can be. It teaches them not to judge too soon, but find more once they discover something – it teaches them to be eager to learn more than what they were taught.

Critical Analysis Essay

If you are working on a critical analysis essay, you must remember to research on facts and based on those, think of the flaws and why it is said so. You must not forget though, that you should always be able to prove what you have observed. This way, you can say how much you’ve improved in observation and how much you’ve learned as well. It is better than that of just listening to opinions, because you’ve made your own stand.

To think critically is one way a person can survive for we all live in a big world full of wonders. One way or another, there will always be a problem. With critical analysis essay, we can realize that. And we will learn how to really carefully critically think things over and not just give up.

Everything we were taught in school isn’t just for us to discover many new words, but it has a purpose to teach us something for life. So remember, if you work on a critical analysis essay – focus. It will go well and teach you many things you have never thought of.

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Do you know what it’s like to be famous? Of course, it’s wonderful! People write about you and talk about you. And some write the story of your life… But did you know that anyone can write the story of another person’s life. We call it autobiography and sometimes it takes a lot to make one good autobiographical essay and make the best autobiography.

An autobiographical essay isn’t really something to be annoyed of. In fact, it’s fun to do. Think of it this way, isn’t it cool to find out some great story behind an average person such as your school janitor, your terror teacher, or maybe even your school principal? If you worked on that you would be surely amazed by change of your attitude as these kinds of people always sound scary, but when you find out their story everything turns upside down. Why? There are instances that your terror teacher is a loving mom at home, and of course you didn’t think of that because she always scared you.

Autobiographical Essay Writing Help

When you write autobiographical essay you learn to state facts too. And it is important you take note of important dates. Another important thing is that you should state the person’s accomplishments too, because this isn’t just to make your composition long but this is to inspire the readers. Don’t include unimportant details such as childhood unless it is somehow related to your goal. And your goal is to tell about the whole person’s life in a short snap, in a way that you feel you’re proud of that person and that you want to show the world what he’s done.

Some would include details on how their chosen person died; after all it is also the part of their lives. But don’t forget to pin point events wherein they mattered so much, the things they’ve done and their dreams.

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One of the complex types of essays is the compare and contrast essay. You have to bring two topics into the spotlight while talking about their differences and their similarities. This essay type also has some format that should be followed by the writers, so that it is considered as compare and contrast essay.

Most of the time, you can always look for things in life where you can compare them at the same time look for the details that they are dissimilar. But since there are a lot of things that we can always jive into one, the best thing to connect these two details is writing a compare and contrast essay.

As this essay is more of a structure, the writer should be careful in putting the details and description of the two topics involved. The topics should be mixed taking all their pros and cons and also their similarities and dissimilarities into account. Though critics look also on the grammatical and stylistic side of writing, they will be focusing more on how you follow the standard format in writing this type of essay.

Compare and Contrast Essay Writing

Also, conclusion is very important. In this part you should underpin the main ideas drawn from the comparison, but also you should show ideas that unite the two topics.

It would also be better if you get two topics that are completely different from each other; two topics that are of extreme definitions. And then, take the common sides of them. In that way, you’ll get to propose the purpose of writing this type of essay.

As writers indulge themselves with this type of essay, they would eventually know the convenience of comparing and contrasting. With this, they could easily apply it into their lives as the world is full of things that are comparable. This may be a complex essay but it depicts what the world’s complexity means.

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Why should or shouldn’t one read the book? This is the question a book report answers. After reading a book you should think deeply on what you have just read and your understanding of it. To express your thoughts, some characteristics of summary and commentary will benefit you.

Regardless of the requirements, any book report or review has some general paragraphs which must be included. Undoubtedly, we must distinguish and remember about two different genres: fiction and non-fiction. Obviously, each of book reviews is going to be different.

So what are these paragraphs?

Book Report Writing Help

One of the most important things you have to mention in book report is the author(s) and the title of a book.  If you like, it can be underlined, but in any case it must be clear. It is necessary to provide with the information about its publication. You can mention the publisher, the year of publishing, quantity of printed copies, number of pages etc.

Another paragraph should define the style and genre of book. Here a brief overview of the book is needed. It is a concise plot summary. But it is not a retelling, just considering the author’s purpose, theme of the book. It can include some personal information about the author, that is, what life positions or experience, or beliefs incited him\her to choose this theme for his\her book. If it is non-fiction book, maybe some considerations on what is the author’s qualification on the topic. If it is fiction, mention the characters of the book, main in particular. You shouldn’t summarize each chapter, but give general idea, plot, topic, main points. Such technique will provide you with the introduction to the book report.

Next paragraph is the main part or body of report. It is the most troublesome part of you work. It must be well thought-out and complied as it reflects some thoughts of reviewer’s opinions about the book and how it fulfills the author’s theme intentions. It would be reasonable to write a thesis.

Analysis and\or critical evaluation of the book is rather essential as well. Here it is necessary to write your expressed views supported with the examples from the book. Present some own ideas about strong and weak points of the book. Do you agree with the author’s arguments, conclusions? Sometimes there is a need to compare reviewed book with another on similar subject. Some issues of the book must be explored.

The last and decisive paragraph is conclusion. Conclusion is the brief review of above mentioned thoughts, ideas and contemplations. Bridge all paragraphs briefly, express your likes and dislikes on the book, summarize your impressions. Has the book achieved the goals? Has the book satisfied your expectation.  Have you learned something from this book or not. If not, what would you recommend the author.  At the end of you book review you should write why would you recommend or not to others to read this book.

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Using Online Sources in a research paper: Pros and Cons

At least once in our life we were faced with the need to write a research paper. Some of us have to do it almost on a daily basis, but even being used to this kind of task we always have to decide what sources to use to back up our points or facts.

Today in the world of modern technology temptation to use internet as your main source is too hard to resist. But as in any other option this choice brings its own benefits and risks.

Pros: Easily Accessible

Writing a research paper sometimes requires an access to information at inconvenient times. Libraries and other sources of published works are not always available, while Internet can be accessed 24 hours a day and 7 days a week.

Pros: Variety of New Information

Study results are more likely to be posted first on websites as well as new discoveries and accomplishments. It takes time to publish it in scientific or publicist journals. And if you use new information in the paper, you have a better chance of showing knowledge and understanding of the topic.

Pros: Availability of hard-to-find documents

There are some books, journals, newspapers and works which exist in a limited quantity. Happens, while hunting for those publications the only chance we get to access them is Internet.

Pros: Ability to conduct a little poll

In order to support or refute certain theory you can conduct a poll that will include responses from people all over the world, while it would be almost impossible to do it in such a short time in any other way.

Cons: Information is not systemized

Unfortunately there are no catalogs and trained “librarians” that can help us in a search for a certain topic and it may take a while to find necessary or new information.

Also some of the sources require subscription but the information kept there is not always helpful or useful. While time was already spent for filling out subscription forms.

Cons: Plagiarism

Chance to plagiarize or abuse authors’ rights are always high. Thoughts on the interested topic are sometimes already put down in the best possible form and it is hard to find another way to express them. The probability of being accused in plagiarism is high when using Internet as your main source simply because someone could have expressed its own point of view in the same words as you did.

Cons: Freedom of Speech

On the Internet every single human being can create own website, blog, etc. It leaves you with the chance of acquiring false or unconfirmed information, which in the long run affect the conclusions or the whole paper itself.

Afterword

These are just the main points. It is up to every person to decide whether to use or not to use online databases as your source. Just remember a few simple precautions if you choose to use information from the Internet:

• Double check the source, author or website itself. If it is not the first or main source, take time but reach the main one. It will give your paper more weight.
• If there is no way to avoid copying some information, use a standard procedure of quoting. This way you will minimize the chance of plagiarism, while including the needed information.
• Last but not least check your finished work for plagiarism by the simple program used by English teachers all over the USA. It will find possible similarities and give you a chance to fix your paper if the percentage is high, before handing in your work. But remember there is always a small percentage of plagiarism present in any paper, so it should worry you too much.

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How to Make a Successful Presentation

‘There always three speeches, for everyone you actually gave. The one you practiced, the one you gave, and the one you wish you gave’, Dale Carnegie, an American writer and a big name in public speaking development. This implies that a speechification or presentation is a great big deal for each speaker, so this requires thorough preparation. Of course, there exist infinite number of ways how to keep your end up while making presentation or giving a talk, yet the following highlights cast light upon the most effective and practical ones.

Creative idea

Make Your Presentation Brilliant

What is the main purpose of your presentation? What key message do you want to deliver to the audience? These and some other similar questions presenter should ask himself before starting working out his or her presentation. Creative idea is one of the starting points to your success in the speechification. For example, if you need to give a talk on quality of education in frame of educational establishment, you should carry the central concept throughout the presentation, covering it under different angles to help the audience better catch the key information.

The idea’s form is also important. It is so-called packaging or an envelope that facilitates and accelerates delivering your key message to the audience. Thereat, the form has to be compatible with the overall agenda of the meeting. Particularly, if your presentation covers the hoc anno skyrocketed increase in your company’s volume of trade, it will not be correct to particularize relevant people. Probably, the audience queers for learning the secrets and the best practices led to such results.

Preparation

You might call presentation a well-prepared improvisation. On the one hand, preparation needs great care and meticulousness. Information selection and its organization is a key factor here. It is not good idea to face the audience with so much factual information and over elaborate the presentation. First and foremost, you need to analyze the audience according to its desires and expectations. You can even visit your presentation making venue in advance to run through your forthcoming speech. On the other hand, over-organization can interfere with business. Evidently your plan should envisage everything, including unexpected follow-up FAQ part to prevent the audience to maneuver you into an awkward position.

Pace

Successful presentation depends on ACA principle (Attention, Comprehension and Acceptance). This means for the presenter that he needs to grab attention of the audience and spell out relevant concepts to ensure that the audience latter supports his ideas. It is rather difficult to draw person’s attention to an issue; however it is more difficult to keep him concentrated on that. Highlight the key point of your presentation and stress on them. Put emphases wisely to grab the audience by your presentation during the entire speechification. The most successful set of  accents or key points may be the following: you start off with a rock candy fact, afterwards you proceed with one more evidence of the merely the same weight, and end up – when the audience doesn’t expect anything – with the most powerful key point.

Time

Psychologists reckon that the most effective period of time for carrying out presentations is daytime – between 3 and 4 p.m. – as people are not fully awake in the morning and are already tired in the evening, giving them hard time to keep track on the presentation course. Modern television has exposed us to the video-like mode of perceiving information. This implies that the presentation should not be dragged out and last for about 20 minutes or so. Keep it short and simple. It is commonly known that time flows differently for both the audience and the presenter; thus, in order not to run away with the material, insert an alarm audio recording to remind you non-intrusively about the time limit for presentations.

Special Effects

There exists an assumption in applied psychology that people are mostly attracted by the events that are stuck out from the dead-level. Tone color, as well as music tempo alterations, stylistic devices and expressive means variations, presenter walking the stage means that changes regarding the presentation content are in progress, making it clear that it is worth paying attention on.

Indeed, the category of presentation is similar to the play genre. Acting out an episode, inviting an honorable person or even celebrity may help the audience turn its attention, take a rest and receive the information more easily.

Visual representation is deemed to be one of the most powerful convincing devices regarding delivering the information via presentation. Similarly, if you give a presentation on some sort of important issue, it is better to distribute your ‘demonstrative evidences’ to the audience to trigger more effective and exciting acquiring the information. However, do not use your visual special effects all together at a time, as the speech deadness might set in again, and all your attempts to prevent the audience from catching flies will be of no effect.

Shtick

In order to make your ideas presented stuck in minds of the audience you should resort to unusual and impressive decisions. Elaborate the high point shtick examples to choose the most appropriate ones for your presentation. Some professionals recommend conducting brainstorming sessions, while others suggest asking for a child’s assistance. Since children do not have blinders on their mind yet, their potential output may be fascinating.

Interactivity

‘Tell me and I’ll forget; show me and I may remember; involve me and I’ll understand’, Confucius said. Audience implication into the presentation making process is crucial because it will lead to the audience keynote points acceptance and follow up appreciation. How to make your speech trustworthy? Best speakers are always acquainted with a few people in a room, so paying a portion of the attention to them will enliven the turnout. Dialog helps to monitor feedback during presentation. Moreover, do not neglect booklets and hand outs distribution as mementos after your speechification. This will serve as hidden enduring dialog maintenance between you and the audience.

Equipment

The principle of successful presentation says that if you are technically illiterate, better hold aloof from it. In vast majority of cases you need to use a projection device or a flipchart or just an ordinary blackboard which you use to sketch anything. When using a computer-based presentation, it is very important not to overdose the presentation volume – 15 slides, no more. Meanwhile, some prominent speakers reckon that a computer-based presentation designed by presentation software, including Microsoft Power Point and Apple Keynote app, even accompanied by the presenter, is not able to supersede the live speechification diversified by relevant handouts, FAQ sessions, shticks and so on indefinitely.

Speaker

Special demands should be placed on the speaker, as his leading role is of top-line importance. Incoherence of speech, twist of the tongue are presenter’s ‘false features’; flow speech, agreeable voice and articulacy usually serve as a token that the skilled speaker is giving his talk now. The speaker may face difficulties answering questions asked by hard nuts that having focused on a minor issue start furiously debate or even beat out something irrelevant. Tolerance, self-control and improvisation will always help you come off with honor. Rooky speakers can record their rehab performance and afterwards discuss its pros and cons with their friends and colleagues.

Correction of mistakes

Upon your presentation it’s time to sum up. Answering a few following questions about the presentation process you will prevent yourself from making the same sort of mistakes. So, did you enjoy the speechification? Were you persuasive, coherent and unobtrusive, honest and sincere? Did you get a feedback from the audience? Will that people keep in mind all the information presented by you? How is your presentation different from the previous ones? Did you focus on the content or just brushed over the key issues?

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By Alison Douglas

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One of the biggest weapon advancements which differentiated the First World War from past wars was the machine-gun. In 1884 Hiram Maxim developed the world’s first automatic, light, portable machine-gun. Maxim designed the gun as to use the recoil energy given off by each bullet to advance the next cartage out and load the next bullet into the chamber. This meant that a person no longer had to reload a gun or waste time re-aiming the gun. Each machine-gun had the fire power of 100 rifles, and were manned by a team of 3 to 6 men, making it more labor efficient than a rifle also. With this efficiency the machine-gun was able to fire unprecedented 400-600 rounds of ammunition per minute. The machine-gun would therefore fire until the entire belt of bullets was used up.

In World War 1 machine-guns were set up all along the France/Germany border, known as the Western Front. Germany decided to protect its much needed machine-gunners in concrete blockhouses. Machine-guns were so deadly and efficient that they soon appeared on just about every vehicle. In order to protect and support the machine-gunners and infantry, artillery was placed behind to give support and long-range firepower. Famous artillery such as the howitzers were the most common on the battle field. The main artillery for the British Army was this long-barreled field gun. This advancement through technological eras showed man’s relationship with this technology and how well we dealt with the responsibility of the awesome power of the automatic weapon. No metals that could with stand the pressures of regular mass or sustain fire. Technology was not good enough to make detailed, accurate, small pieces necessary for machine guns. Americans found themselves as one of the front runners of the industrialized world. This was always associated closely with small arms. The main reasons that the machine gun appeared when it did: The Civil War. The first modern war in which the effect of technology truly made themselves apparent.

Organ Gun was the first intro of a machine gun to the world. It was first employed into combat in 1382 in the battle of Ghent and changed very little until about 250 years later. The organ gun by today’s standards is not a machine gun but is capable of multiple shots at once. It was a moveable platform consisting of approximately 50 barrels aligned in a circle. Even assuming that all the barrels fired it was still took a great deal of time to load the gun and the initial shock of the blast was soon gone, and the shock of the weapon soon dissipated. With the added weight of the weapons 50 barrels it made it very heavy and cumbersome to move around, making it very hard to position effectively on the battlefield. The type of ignition in place in the gun was flint and roughened steel, which produced a spark and ignited the gunpowder. The weapon proved to be highly unreliable. (Montross)

In the mid-17th century a member of the Royal Society named Palmer redesigned the organ gun using the same idea making one slightly less cumbersome. His new idea was more along the lines of what we use today. It had a single barrel that was loaded with one charge after another, each aligned with touch holes that ran up the barrel. Each was ignited again and again as it moved up the adjustable fuse holding devices, until they were aligned with the touch holes. Palmer also had an idea that was about two hundred years ahead of his time. He drew plans that used the recoil of the gases in the barrel load discharge and reload the weapon, similar to today’s machine guns. But again the technology limits mans ideas because the proper boring of the holes could not be done during this time period.

Up through 1862 (the civil war) most of the machine gun inventors had been torn between making money and feelings of patriotism. Richard Jordan Gatling was no acceptation. The gun that he invented, the Gatling gun, was the most reliable one to this date. This model incorporated a modern cartridge, a containing bullet, a propellant and means of ignition. Gatling contrived 10 barrels, each of which was loaded and fired once throughout a complete rotation. The rounds were loaded by gravity and the coming action of the cartridge container, which was on the top of the gun. Each barrel was loaded and fired with in one half of a rotation around the central shaft. The second half of the rotation facilitated means for ejecting the cartridge. Later models could fire about 3000 rounds per minute, assuring that it did not jam. Gatling got his gun patented and put on a demonstration for the Governor of Indiana. He was so impressed by it that he wrote a letter to the Assistant Secretary of War F.H. Watson urging him to allow the Gatling to be given an official chance to prove its worth. This, however, did not work because Gatling had moved from the South to Indiana to try to sell his gun since the north was more adept to Technological advancements. He was thought to be a part of a secret group of southerners posing to be northern sympathizers but aiding in the southern cause with acts of sabotage. After repeated unsuccessful trips to Washington Gatling finally dropped his partner and contracted with cooper firearms. (Hogg)

The guns being made by then were of much higher quality. At this point was when the Gatling gun finally took off. Gatling was torn by the fact that he was making money by discovering more effective ways to kill his fellow humans. With the advent of smokeless powder in the 1880s we were able to convert from a hand cranked machine gun into a fully automatic one. This type of powder had an even combustion which allowed the gun to harness the recoil so as to work the bolt so that it can expel the spent cartridge and reload itself automatically. The Maxim gun was the world’s first true fully automatic weapon. It was developed by Hiram Maxim in 1884. The essential new feature was that it utilized the force of the recoil to operate the ejection, loading, and firing mechanisms. Once the initial round was fired the gun was fully automatic. (Hogg)

Vicker a leading manufacturer of the weapon bought the idea and manufactured the product. This gun being that it was invented when it was, during the start of the Industrial Revolution and the coincidental start of the First World War. It became the product of the Revolution. The only enemy known to the Maxim now was its users. The generals of the day especially British were naive to the possible uses of this weapon. Their past tactical systems: charge would not work against the machine gun. Little tactically had changed since Gustavus Adolphus and Frederick the Great. The machine gun made people think about old ideas in a new light. This would be the end to the old ideas of war. The machine gun threatened the social order of warfare. In Africa this weapon was employed for its designed purpose. A large number of bodies in a charge. “Thank god we have got The Maxim gun, and they do not.” Without the use of the Maxim many of British footholds in Africa might be lost British Cavalry Training Manual: “It must be accepted as a principle that the rifle, effective as it is, cannot replace the effect produced by the speed of the horse, the magnetism of the charge, and the terror of cold steel.” (Montross)

The Lewis gun was the introduction of the light machine gun, gas-operated, air-cooled, and fed by a rotating drum containing either 47 or 97 rounds. It was designed by Samuel MacLean and developed for the US army. It was widely used by the British. US, and Belgian armies, on the ground as well as in the air. Purposively it was the weapon used to shot down the Red Baron. In 1918 the machine gun ceases to make headlines anymore, since it was a supposedly peaceful world. This summer, however, brought us the first working model of the Thompson sub machine gun or the Tommy gun. It was developed by Col. John Thompson as a military weapon, though it did not pan out that way. The ‘trench broom’, as he called it, was tested by the Marine Corps and the Army but few orders were ever made. It really gained fame for its use by organized crime members for their dangerous business of bootlegging. The advantages of this gun were that the .45 could be used for fend off police and then the barrel could later be traded for a .22 barrel for quiet basement practice. Organized crime first used this gun on 25 Sept. 1925 when Frank McErlane and Polack Joe Saltis attacked members of the O’Donnell family in Chicago. It took Al Capone a couple of near deaths by the Tommy gun to realize that he needed to order a bunch and from then forward, it has become a piece of the gangster identity. (Montross)

The first widespread use of the Tommy gun (T/CSMG) was in WWII. The troops liked it because it was lighter than its opposition and was quite effective in repelling the enemy. The machine gun was essentially an American invention, not simply because the four greatest names in machine gun History were Americans, Gatling, Maxim, Browning, Lewis, but America was also the first to create such materials that could make automatic fire a feasible weapon, On one hand these conditions fostered new ideas and developments of tools and skills, on another hand they changed the face of warfare, which makes the machine gun must have in combat. Records show us that the tank was the first and most effective response to the machine gun. At first they acted as mere battering rams. They made the existence of trenches almost obsolete and the importance of the machine gun, although vital, declined in importance. Medium machine guns could still be used in repelling infantry assaults. Men were now protected by armor and no longer had to cross no man’s land. Men had entered a new military era.

The advent of the machine gun changed the face of war fighting forever. No longer did the outcome of the war depend on the heart and morale of the troops, but whether or not they had enough ammo and water. No longer are we fighting the troops, but now his guns. By 1918 the transition to the new face of war was complete. We were coming up with faster and more sure fire ways to destroy ourselves. The world is changing yet. We as humans are becoming bystanders more and more now. Computers are going to be fighting the wars in years soon to come. With the introduction of nuclear weapons now, there is a logical conclusion in sight. The end of the world will not come with a whimper or a bang, it will come with the statistically inevitable short circuit that will launch the missiles from the silos, and helpless we will stand.

Bibliography

Cutshaw, Charles and Gander, Terry. “Small Arms Heavyweights: The Growth of Anti-Material

Rifles.” Jane’s International Defense Review (March 1998), pp. 45-49.

Hogg, Ivan V. Guns and How They Work (Marshall Cavendish London and New York, 1979).

Keegan, John, A History of Warfare New York: Random House, Inc., 1993.

Marchington, James (ed). Handguns, Sub-machine Guns: Semi-Automatic Pistols & Revolvers

(Brassey’s Modern Army Fact file Series) (Brassey’s Inc. 1997).

Montross, Lynn, War through the Ages, New York and London: Harper and Brothers Publishers,

1944.

Toffler, Alvin and Heidi, War and Anti-War: Survival at the Dawn of 21st Century New York:

Warner Books, 1995.

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By Susan Parker

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Table of Contents

• A. Plan of Investigation
• B. Summary of Evidence
• C. Evaluation of Sources
• D. Analysis
• E. Conclusion
• F. Bibliography

Thesis In spite of extreme violence and violation of human rights experienced by millions of black people, slavery was a ‘necessary evil’ which became a driven force of economic development.

A. Plan of Investigation.

In American History slavery was one of the most important and controversial periods which had a great impact on economic and social development of the nation. The investigation assesses the impact of slavery on economic conditions and its role in economic development of America. The investigation evaluates influence of slavery on agriculture and manufacturing. Economic analyses and participation of slave labor force in economic development are used to analyze the impact and role of slave labor in development of American economy. Two of the sources used in the essay are G.S. Merriam The Negro and the Nation: A History of American Slavery and Enfranchisement and H.F. Williamson The Growth of the American Economy. Both of these sources are evaluated for their objectivity, origins and limitations for the study.

The investigation does not assess cultural and social changes, but it sees economic development as an engine of social and cultural progress ^1.

B. Summary of Evidence

Before the period of slavery, American nation had slow economic growth rates in contrast to European countries 2. The productive capacity of the American Colonies was materially affected by the power of the labor market. Because of the scarcity of labor, particularly of skilled workmen, this market favored the laborer rather than the employer.

Colonial workmen commanded wages from 30 to 100 percent higher than the wages of contemporary English laboring men. Economic nationalism entered into the problem of the labor market as well as other problems of economic enterprise, and created a policy marked by sharp contradictions. Colonies were favored, but at the same time an effort was made to maintain a large labor supply at home in order to assure low wages and manufacturing costs. The home authorities sought to encourage early colonization. Master guildsmen and merchants sponsored the settlement of Virginia ³. Another problem was that many immigrants from the South returned England or migrated to urban areas which proposed greater opportunities and higher wages. The economic crisis affected agriculture which could not survive without labor force, because machinery had not been invented yet 4.

Although, new land for cultivation had to be reclaimed from virgin forest and grassland, and although the difficulties and costs of clearing were great, efforts to maintain soil fertility were considered uneconomical by most settlers. On new land planting of the same crop was generally repeated until the inevitable decline in production was so great that the profitability of continued cultivation of the field was questionable. The process of exhaustion might take twenty years; it sometimes occurred in five. Declining productivity encouraged migration to the fresh lands of the West. As an alternative to migration, methods aimed at renewing soil fertility were adopted by some farmers in many of the affected areas ⁵

In the Colonial and Revolutionary periods, three stages of manufacturing existed side by side: household manufacturing, the prevailing system; the domestic or putting-out system, well entrenched by the middle of the eighteenth century; and the factory, developed under the stress of Revolutionary conditions. For goods produced mainly for local consumption and not requiring elaborate equipment, household manufactures or workshop crafts prevailed. On the other hand, these productions required greater skill and hands. With the development of manufacturing facilities and machinery, this industries required more labor in order to expend production. Slavery was the cheapest labor which allowed agriculture and manufacturing to save costs and invest them into production ^6. Without cheap labor these industries would fail to meet changing social conditions and economic demands. Once entered into the lists of gradual emancipation experiments, manufacturing was naturally subjected to scrutiny. In economic terms, early years of increased profit were explained away as a contextual coincidence. The experiment had begun at a low point in West Indian profits, and manufacturing benefited by the generally favorable market of the late 1780s when slave labor entered these industries ⁷

C. Evaluation of Sources.

The sources used for analysis are based on theoretical background and economic data analysis. Both of them are academic sources written from historical and economic perspectives. The main advantage of the book The Negro and the Nation: A History of American Slavery and Enfranchisement is that it gives substantial analysis of the causes of slavery, lives of slaves and their role in national economic and social development. The book The Growth of the American Economy is based on economic data analysis which includes driven forces of economic development, changes in modes of production, new trade relations and growth of manufacturing sector. The main limitation of this source is that it does not include deep analysis of slavery seeing it a part of economic development only. Thus, both sources allow me to identify the main trends in historical development and economic environment which supported and favored the institution of slavery.

D. Analysis

Many historians (Whitman, 2004; Bontemps, 2001) view slavery as a wrong and evil; they looked hopefully for its early extinction; they recognized great difficulties in adapting the negro to conditions of freedom; and they were in general too much absorbed in other and pressing problems to direct much practical effort toward emancipation. Slaves were generally first landed at the West Indies and seasoned before being sold in the mainland colonies. By the end of the seventeenth century, the slave population had rapidly mounted. They were confined in the main to employment in the Southern plantation economy. While the bulk of them were used for field and household labor, others were trained in a variety of trades and often farmed out by their masters. Following Merriam (1970):

The stream of slavery moved mainly according to economic conditions. Soil and climate in the Northern States made the labor of the indolent and unthrifty slave unprofitable, but in the warm and fertile South, developing plantations of tobacco, rice, and indigo, the negro toiler supplied the needed element for great profits. The church’s part in the business was mainly to find excuse”⁸

The skilled Negro artisan was, therefore, a serious threat to the free Southern workman in such towns as Charleston. Ultimately he entirely replaced the free workman in the supply of skilled labor in the South. The increase in rice and indigo production in the South boosted the price of slaves^. The average price in 1650 was £20 a head, in 1700 £25, and by the eve of the Revolution between £50 and £80. Economic data shows that since the beginning of slavery American experienced rapid economic growth in all spheres of economy: sugar and cotton production, steel and gold mining. Great volumes of currency were invested in production facilities and technological innovations which replaced old methods of agriculture and modes of production. Similar to the factories of the industrial towns were the somewhat smaller works set up on numerous plantations in the Southern Colonies. Gradually Negro workers were trained to replace white artisans in that enterprise. When the depression of the 1750’s and 1760’s forced many planters to produce such other staples as wheat, corn, rye, and barley, Carter engaged in milling on an ambitious scale. He built a grain mill designed to grind 25,000 bushels of wheat a year and requiring £5,000 annually for its operation; in his two ovens 100 pounds of flour could be baked at one time. So wide a variety of occupations throws out of perspective the traditional picture of the planter solely dependent upon the vagaries of the tobacco market for the livelihood of family and workmen. With a baseline of some of the worst years in plantation profits during the American Revolution, every planter’s situation improved after 1783 when slavery was introduced in all states. For one thing, it should be noted that the spread and growth of these industries are closely linked to the growth of agriculture, from which they stem. Agricultural changes necessarily bring changes in the agricultural processing industries (Najar 2004). A shift from tobacco growing to wheat growing helped to build up Richmond as a milling center with the help of slave labor only ^9.

From social perspective, whites and blacks could easily observe one another on the farms and plantations and in the small towns they inhabited, in the face- to -face world that existed, necessarily, even in a place like Charleston, which was until relatively late in the colonial era the only real town of any size and cultural and economic significance in the entire region. Not only did blacks and whites work together and in many instances live together in the same structures, the range of their social interaction in other contexts was substantial. Statistical data shows that: “By 1840, the South grew 60 percent of the world’s cotton and provided some 70 percent of the cotton consumed by the British textile industry. Thus slavery paid for a substantial share of the capital, iron, and manufactured good that laid the basis for American economic growth”¹⁰

The economic changes that followed the Revolutionary War were of two sorts: those that affected general activity and those that affected the distribution of wealth and income among various groups of the population. The first type of change operated in both domestic and foreign trade increased because of rapid growth of slave labor and production facilities. The wartime depreciation of the currency and the inflationary rise in prices were followed by a sharp deflation in the post-war period, particularly in 1785 and 1786. Also, “Berlin distinguishes between North American “societies with slaves,” in which slave labor stood at the margins of the economy, and “slave societies,” where slave labor proved central to the politics and economy of the society”¹¹.

E. Conclusion

The facts and economic data show that slavery was one of the most important engines which created new opportunities for agriculture and industry. The development of the Western farmlands and Southern agriculture was associated with the labor supply. The rise of non-agricultural population also established a market for the ever-mounting volume of farm products. Manufacturing experienced a most favorable reaction, since it was necessary to supplant the imported goods that were cut off. In these circumstances, slavery was the only possible way to improve production facilities and save costs for further development and growth. Without slave trade and cheap labor, America was not able to establish high rates of industrial growth in all spheres of economy and compete with foreign suppliers from Europe.

_____________________

1. Aptheker, H. American Negro Slave Revolts. (International Publishers, 1993) 5-6.

2. Williamson, H.F. The Growth of the American Economy. (Prentice-Hall, 1951) 7.2.

3. Williamson, H.F. The Growth of the American Economy. (Prentice-Hall, 1951) 24.

4. ibid. 19-20.

5. ibid. 134.

6. Bontemps, A. The Punished Self: Surviving Slavery in the Colonial South (Cornell University Press, 2001), 139.

7. Merriam, G.S. The Negro and the Nation: A History of American Slavery and Enfranchisement. (Haskell House, 1970) 379-380.

8. Merriam, G.S. The Negro and the Nation: A History of American Slavery and Enfranchisement. (Haskell House, 1970) 5.

9. Merriam, G.S. The Negro and the Nation: A History of American Slavery and Enfranchisement. (Haskell House, 1970), 22-28.

10. Was slavery the engine of economic growth? 2006. www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/con_economic.cfm

11. Fett, S.M. Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. Michigan Historical Review, (Vol. 26, 2000) 149.

Bibliography

1. Aptheker, H. American Negro Slave Revolts. International Publishers, 1993.
2. Bontemps, A. The Punished Self: Surviving Slavery in the Colonial South. Cornell University Press, 2001.
3. Fett, S.M. Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. Michigan Historical Review, Vol. 26, 2000, 149.
4. Merriam, G.S. The Negro and the Nation: A History of American Slavery and Enfranchisement. Haskell House, 1970.
5. Was slavery the engine of economic growth? 2006. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/con_economic.cfm
6. Williamson, H.F. The Growth of the American Economy. Prentice-Hall, 1951.
7. Whitman, S.T. Myths and Realities of American Slavery: The True History of Slavery in America. Journal of Southern History, Vol. 70, 2004, 139.

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by Lorraine McCurdy

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Native American culture and identity represent a unique combination of historical, economic, political, religious and diverse cultural influences. Impressions and interpretation of the land and the traditions shaped American culture brining unique beliefs and aspirations followed and shared by millions of Americans. This survival of a close link between religion and ethnic identity helps to understand the way Americans tend to think and act. Globalization and integration processes have forced many Native Americans to assimilate and become a part of the American society. According to statistical results, “the Native Americans population is growing. According to the 2000 census data, there are 2.5 million Native Americans in the United States, up from 1.9 million in 1990” (Morton 2002, p.37). In spite of great benefits and advantages, assimilation into American culture brings Native Americans grievances and disillusions. Thesis Assimilation and new social changes have brought Native Americans such problems as alcoholism and infectious diseases, false social images in media have resulted in lack of social support and negative stereotyping which cause great suffering and psychological burden to native population.

Low class location prevents many Native Americans to obtain social respect and opportunities available for white and black majority. For instance, it is difficult for Native American families to give good education for their children. From the early age, their children are excluded from society. It means that they visit pre-school courses and sections for low class families; they go to low prestigious schools (The United States Commission on Civil Rights 2001). They receive poor primary education because of social position of their parents. In ten years, they become workers or service labor unable to obtain high paid job and step over to a higher social class.

Lack of education and low social position leads Native Americans to such problems as sexually transmitted diseases and alcoholism. The lack of HIV/AIDS education, prevention, and quality care on reservations has encouraged many Natives to migrate from reservations to urban areas. Native population is similar to that of society at large, with men representing 82.6 percent of the cases and men who have sex with men constituting the largest segment of Native American AIDS cases, 5%. The second largest exposure category for Native male adult/adolescents is men who have sex with men and inject drugs, 17%. Since males account for the largest portion of AIDS cases for Native American, and men and women who have sex with men make up the main exposure category, it is critical that we focus our attention on this population to stop the further spread of HIV/AIDS in tribal communities. Lack of understanding and discriminatory treatment of two-spirit men creates an environment where HIV/AIDS can spread unimpeded. Knowledge of gender and sexual variance in Native societies is limited, but what is known is that some tribal communities had more than male and female genders and participated in a variety of sexual orientations (Weaver 1999). Those tribal members who engaged in third and fourth genders and sexual diversification were known by several names, such as winkte (Lakota), nГЎdleeh (Navajo), kwidГі (Tewa), tainna wa’ippe (Shoshone), dubuds (Paiute).

Generally speaking, the aboriginal harmony ethos consisted of a complex social code whereby individual freedom was checked by the extended family and clan. Respect for, and cooperation with, nature was imperative for existence, according to this ethos. Accordingly, animals and plants were thanked for providing sustenance to the group. Elements of the harmony ethos have survived to the present and are represented in tribal traditionalism.    At the Civil Rights Commission hearings, many of the Navajos stated that alcoholism was the major problem affecting their people and that it was fueled by the non-Indian, off-reservation business community, which deliberately took advantage of this social ill for its profit. There was a call for closing all local Indian bars. Another environment of marginal Indians where there is a high concentration of substance abuse is the urban Indian ghettos, created by the federal policies of termination and relocation in the 1950s. “Factors that seem to be related to alcohol abuse in this population include cultural dislocation (the feeling of not fitting into either traditional Native American culture or the general U.S. culture), the lack of clear sanctions or punishments for alcohol abuse, and strong peer pressure and support for alcohol abuse” (Thomason 2000, p.243).

Indian gambling enterprises became major employers of Indians and nonIndians in states like Connecticut and parts of Wisconsin and Minnesota. Gambling revenues paid for roads, water systems, health care, and education for some tribes. Indian gambling was not without problems. State governments sought to limit the operations. Disputes arose in some small tribes over who was and was not a member and thus entitled to casino profits. Some tribes were cheated out of gambling profits by the outside casino operators they employed. Rivalries between pro- and antigambling factions led to bloodshed in a few cases. Nevertheless, gambling remained a significant and growing engine of economic development (Calloway 1995).

The most disturbing facts concern wrong social images of Native Americans depicted by the media. While much attention goes to larger groups such as African Americans and Hispanics or Latinos, increasingly Native Americans’ views are heard on treatment of their people in the news media. Generally their criticisms echo those of the larger groups, but in addition, Native Americans criticize the use of imagery. They say journalists failed to understand Native American cultures, history, and treaty rights and misrepresented them when reporting conflicts such as those over fishing. They criticize mainstream reporting on the rise of Native American casinos for not describing adequately the tribal sovereignty that make them possible. Finally, mainstream coverage is cited for too often depicting Native American people and communities as historical artifacts or museum pieces who has no contemporary existence. Journalism educators pay attention to preparing their students to work in a multicultural world. Again, though more notice is given to the larger African American and Latino or Hispanic groups, Native American concerns also surfaced. These generally are aimed to remind viewers of the complex cultural and legal issues surrounding news about Native Americans, and to explore the nature of stereotyping in the media.

As in the 1990s, the variety of Indian images in the press increased. But, perhaps in keeping with the hard-nosed “me” orientation of the 1990s and public cynicism of the 1990s, there were fewer romantic images. Stories depicting Native Americans as exotic people from the past or degraded Indians who were beset by poverty and social problems persisted, though modified to fit the times. Although Native Americans were not routinely identified as “braves”, “squaws”, and the like in the mainstream press, stereotypical language continued to crop up. It seemed to appear more often in stories in which Indians were peripheral to the action than in stories specifically about their concerns. The story selection also reinforced imagery. Despite attempts to broaden the definition of what was considered news, stories of conflict, the unusual, and the bizarre still rated prominent placement. When these values were applied to stories about Native Americans, a numerically small group with little political or economic power, mundane but significant stories about their communities were less likely to see print.

Native American resist strongly and their protests are also raised on the emotional and symbolic issue of the use of Indian representations for sports teams. Critics contend such logos and mascots are racist and demeaning to Native Americans. “Indians are people, not mascots,” wrote Lakota editor and publisher Tim Giago. He quoted activist Charlene Teters as saying, “Mascots disgrace Indian people. . . . When a static symbol is used to represent a group of people, it gives off a one-dimensional image and devalues the living individuals.” Another activist said the mascot issue “represents the core of institutional racism. As long as we tolerate these types of images, attitudes towards jobs, social welfare, progress, and important issues will continue to be dealt with at a surface level.” Stanford University and Dartmouth College did away with their Indian mascots in the 1970s, and numerous other colleges and high schools did so later. Others, including the University of Illinois, professional football teams such as the Washington Redskins and Kansas City Chiefs, baseball teams such as the Atlanta Braves and Cleveland Indians, and hockey teams such as the Chicago Blackhawks, clung stubbornly to what they saw as tradition or profitable marketability (Calloway 1995).

The clash of cultures showed how journalistic practices can lead to flawed images and coverage. Reporters from many states descended on the sprawling, isolated reservation to cover the story. Some were Native Americans, but not necessarily Navajos. All were under deadline pressure. They could not observe the Navajos’ traditional four days of deep mourning and still get their stories. Also, journalism required facts, in this case, names. Journalists felt compelled to intrude on privacy and tradition to get their stories. The damaging generalizations were certainly not new in the coverage of Native Americans. Nor was it the first time journalists had run roughshod over traditional practices. The significant aspect was that Navajo leaders spoke out and condemned the media and that their views were reported in the mainstream press (Hatfield 2000).

Their views also found their way into some mainstream publications, where they could resonate among journalists and the public alike. Whether it was due to the vigilance of Native Americans or the greater economic power of a few tribes or journalism’s attention to multicultural issues or expanding definitions of news or some combination of these, the images of Native Americans in the 1990s press multiplied. Stereotyping did not end, as the examples cited illustrate, but it was mitigated by a variety of other portrayals. Indians have been patronized, romanticized, stereotyped, and ignored by most of mainstream America. The twentieth-century press has been complicit in this, seldom by design but certainly through the exercise of its own conventions and values. To be sure, journalism has reflected the images and stereotypes prevalent in the popular culture. But it has done more. The very conventions and practices of journalism have worked to reinforce that popular–and often inaccurate–imagery. Stereotyping does not depend only on the use of crude language or factual inaccuracies. It also comes from the choice of stories to report, the ways stories are organized and written, the phrases used in headlines (Minerd 2000).

By the late twentieth century, stories of Native Americans were finding prominent places in mainstream news publications. The images those articles presented in the news seemed more varied than in the past. While the old, stereotypical images were easily found in the press, new ones were also there. Significantly, Native American journalists and others talked back to the media, taking news organizations to task for flawed coverage. Given all this attention to accurate portrayals of diverse communities, was the press more sensitive to images of Native Americans embodied in its stories? Did journalistic practices that sought to broaden definitions of news and ways of telling it affect the portrayals of Native Americans? “So, since many Native Americans are outraged about the symbolization of Native Americans in sports and advertising, and since society would not tolerate equivalent symbols of other minorities, it is clear that Native Americans are discriminated against–regardless of how others may feel about the matter–and that their civil rights are violated by such racial discrimination” (Hatfield 2000, p.43).

It is incredible but the image of Native Americans in these stories was one of a symbol, a metaphor, a mascot–one that had nothing to do with real people or even real history. Such trivialization perhaps made the use of stereotypical language seem permissible. The stories were not dealing with real Native Americans; they and their views had disappeared from the coverage. Though some later stories quoted Native Americans, when the Illiniwek controversy entered the political realm, Indians were shut out. If contemporary Native Americans were relegated to minor roles in the 1999 controversy, they were more prominent a few years later when two professional sports teams with Indian names played in Minneapolis, which has a large Native American population (Native American Spirit Survives 2004). Native Americans were portrayed as leaders of the effort to eliminate offensive sports mascots in 1991 when the Atlanta Braves played the Minnesota Twins in the World Series and in 1992 when the Washington Redskins played in the Super Bowl in Minneapolis. In both events, Native Americans were generally portrayed in the mainstream press as legitimate protesters whose views were to be treated seriously (Native American Spirit 2004).

The facts show that lack of government support and intervention campaigns are the main causes of the problems mentioned above. On the one hand, the US government does not help Native Americans to assimilate; on the other hand false media images worsen the problem depriving many people to enter American society. Clearly articulated goals against alcohol and HIV/AIDS will help to identify the true purpose of the inter­vention, facilitate public understanding and debate around legitimate health purposes, and reveal prejudice, stereotypical attitudes, or irrational fear and exploration of more intrusive measures are permissible where clearly necessary. Social agencies should launch campaigns against the drinking and should educate Native Americans about the adverse effects of drinking and diseases on their health. “There are likely to be a variety of cultural, psychological and biological factors that distinguish Alaska Natives from the majority population with respect to alcohol use and the development of alcohol problems, it is also appears that there are many similarities” (Hesselbrock et al 2000, p.150).

The main reason is that if the provision of service or benefits programs does not adequately protect public health, more restrictive policies may be warranted. The “disconnect” is rooted in official schizophrenia–at least when it comes to federal policy toward Native Americans” (Mckelvey 2004, p.28). Governments sometimes feel public pressure to respond to an urgent pub­lic health concern with restrictive or punitive measures. For example, public opinion may blame Native Americans, drug users, homosexuals, sex workers, or other disenfranchised populations for the health threat. A searching exami­nation of a range of less restrictive alternatives can uncover policies that not only defend the rights of the individual, but also are more worthwhile for the population as a whole. “Native Americans who have a strong Native Americans identity and are greatly involved in their traditional culture may respond better to a treatment program that takes their culture into account, although there is no empirical data to suggest that this will result in improved outcomes” (Thomason 2000, p.243).

The second important measures are that public opinion should call for civil commitment offering alcohol addicts incentives and services. Stress, portraying a self image and cultural pressure are found to be the indisputable causes of cultural decay. In terms of the crisis of identity is an interpretation of the self that establishes what and where the man is in both social and psychological terms. When one has identity one is situated; that is, cast in the shape of a social object by the acknowledgement of his participation or membership in social relations. Gender identities exist only in societies, which define and organize them. The search for identity includes the question of what is the proper relationship of the individual to society as a whole. It is important these steps and decisions must be made in an emergency, precluding deliberative reasoning and assessment of scientific evidence. Knowledge of the self is discovered through an understanding of the whole congeries of social and communal bonds which determine a male, and this in turn depends on an appreciation of the ‘narrative’ of social life: personal identity is just that identity presupposed by the unity of character which the unity of narrative requires.

The true images of Native Americans are gathered in a gallery which shows that “Interesting Native Americans doing wonderful and amazing things in society” (Modern Native American Profiles 2006). These photos dhow that Native Americans do not differ from other nations: African-Americans or Latinos who positively portrayed by the media. To some extent, false social images of Native Americans show discrimination and racism against ethical minorities, if the roots of color are found partly in widespread acceptance of the one drop rule. In other words, that objective value structure is to be found in given social forms that provide shared meanings, phenomena that are entirely absent from the artificial world created by males. From this perspective, media can never be neutral between competing ways of life but must preserve the form of life in which individuals are embedded. The males is not prior to social arrangements but constituted by them. This approach clearly undermines that purported universalism which characterizes much of normative mode, and would seem to limit social criticism to an exploration of the meanings of forms of life. “Many people in Indian Country desire the trappings of middle-class American life–cars, televisions, stereos, jobs, money–but do not want to lose their Indianness or sense of belonging to place” (Minerd 2000, p.10).

Unlike whiteness, which is rooted in the belief that whites are racially pure and that being white is genetically determined, Native Americans make no assumption that they are not ethically pure. Native Americans and whites in the United States offer strikingly different explanations for behavior. Whites come by this belief honestly enough, for their culture has taught them that blacks are an inferior, degraded people, strong, stupid, and oversexed. Most black people, not all, really believe that behavior is determined by choice, and that the choices made are moral ones. Native Americans come by this belief honestly enough for their culture has taught them that some whites behave morally and others do not. Native Americans distinguish among whites who are racist, those who are antiracist, and those who claim that racism is no longer a force in American society. Native Americans draw these distinctions for the same reason as their ancestors; they do not have the luxury of pretending all whites are the same.

References

Calloway, CG 1995, The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities, Cambridge University Press.

Hatfield, D 2000, ‘The Stereotyping of Native Americans’, The Humanist, vol. 60, p.43.

Hesselbrock, M, Hesselbrock, V, & Segal, B 2000, ‘Alcohol Dependence among Alaska Natives Entering Alcoholism Treatment: A Gender Comparison’, Journal of Studies on Alcohol, vol. 61, p. 150.

‘Native American Spirit Survives Through Centuries of Struggle, Strickland Says’, 25 October 2004, viewed 5 May 2011, < http://www.law.virginia.edu/html/news/2004_fall/spirit.htm>

Mckelvey, T 2004, ‘Domestic Abuse: How the U.S. Government Is Violating Native Americans’ Human Rights’, The American Prospect, vol. 15, p. 28.

Minerd, J 2000, ‘Native Americans vs. Environmentalists’, The Futurist, vol. 34, p. 10.

Morton, L 2002, ‘Targeting Native Americans’, Public Relations Quarterly, vol. 47, p. 37.

‘Modern Native American Profiles’, 2006, viewed 5 May 2011 <http://www.nativethreads.com/nativepride/profiles.php>

Thomason, T 2000, ‘Issues in the Treatment of Native Americans with Alcohol Problems’, Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, vol. 28, p. 243.

‘The United States Commission on Civil Rights’, 13 April 2001, viewed 6 May 2011 <http://www.aics.org/mascot/civilrights.html>

Weaver, H 1999, ‘Through Indigenous Eyes: Native Americans and the HIV Epidemic’, Health and Social Work, vol. 24, p. 27.

Other